Through the wind and rain

Despite poor performances, inflated ticket prices and greedy stars, sports fans stand by their team. Saffy Rushworth takes a look at what makes them tick

We have been spoilt for choice with sport this summer. There is Wimbledon, Euro 2004, and the Olympic Games lined up for August. For fans of sport it means an endless array of sporting events to choose from. Will Tim Henman become the first English man to win Wimbledon since Fred Perry in 1936? Will hot favourite France retain the European Championship trophy in Portugal? And will the United States dominate the Olympic Games once again?

That's entertainment

The world's eyes have been securely fixed on sport as a means of entertainment for many years, and the reasons have been varied. Maybe it is down to the dedication which the athletes show to their sport or maybe it is because when the football season starts we develop such feelings of hope and expectation for our team or maybe we just love the excitement of a competitive tournament and the fact it brings the country together. What ever the reason for our love of sport we can't deny the fact that it has the ability to take over our lives and turn normal men and women into obsessional lunatics. Our mood begins to depend on how our team performed at the weekend, we feel gutted every time our team gets knocked out of a competition, and dejected when we come home with fewer gold medals than other countries. So why do we feel this way and what makes us turn from a fan into a fanatic?

Strong connections

There have been many theories of what makes fans identify with a particular team and why they interact with the sport and players like they do. Daniel Wann is a sports psychologist at Murray State University and has been researching the behaviour of sports fans for many years. In 2003, he and two colleagues did the Norelco Sport Fanatics survey which examined the behaviour of sports fans.¹ The survey took place online and assessed fans' support and involvement with their teams and also the effect of fandom on their family and social relations.

Daniel Wann says, "When individuals identify and form a strong connection with a local team, it is related to psychological health. The more they identify with the team, the higher their self esteem, the higher their vigour or energy; the lower their fatigue, confusion, depression and alienation."²

The behaviour of sports fans can be explained by theories of social identity. When teams are winning, the fan feels a boost in self confidence and self esteem. The positive influence of a team which is on a winning streak is reflected by the fans in their personal life. They feel their luck has increased, they are more motivated within their job and family life, and are more self assured.

We are always happiest when our team is winning and it is at this time that fans actively seek association with their team. One study suggested that fans avoided private contact with their team when it was unsuccessful and sought more contact with the team when it was successful.³ These two social identity theories have special acronyms dedicated to them. The first is called BIRG which stands for basking in reflected glory.

Christian M End is an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Missouri-Rolla and has done extensive research into the psychology of sports fans. He says, "People make efforts to publicly associate with a winner. Whether or not this means wearing team apparel, attending games, using the pronoun 'we' when talking about the team, or posting messages on online message boards with a new team affiliated handle, etc, people want to stress their associations with winners. We strive to have a favourable self concept or positive self esteem. We can achieve a positive social identity as a result of a favourable comparison to some outgroup. Therefore in sports, a positive social identity can be achieved as a result of my team comparing favourable to the opponent in terms of final score. Others will perceive me as being a winner and I'll feel like a winner, because I associate with winners."

But what happens when our team does the unthinkable and loses? The opposite to BIRG is CORF--cutting off reflected failure. This means that when a team loses the fan feels it as a personal failure. Many people feel their world has fallen apart when their team lose, they feel depressed, low in spirits, even like shutting themselves away and hiding from the world, particularly if it is a cup final or a knockout competition.

We actively seek emotional contact with our team when it is winning as our own self esteem increases, but when the team loses we distance ourselves. One study looked at distancing tactics on sports fans. They found that basketball fans tended to avoid their team after a loss but alternatively found that self esteem and positive emotions were higher when negative emotions were lower.⁴

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Football fans and hat fanciers anxiously await the invention of the Burberry cap

'Enthusiastic devotees'

Webster's dictionary describes a fan as "an enthusiastic devotee of a sport or diversion, usually as a spectator rather than a participant" as opposed to fanatics as those who "exhibit excessive enthusiasm and intense critical devotion."⁵ It is at these times when fans become overzealous and their obsession and fanaticism over their team degenerates into violence and aggression.

Football hooligans have caused the wrong sort of publicity for the beautiful game and are responsible for much of the bad press which follows England in its European and World Championships. The persistent violence when England goes abroad has been well documented by television crews and newspapers and has made the headlines for all the wrong reasons. These hooligans have even been termed "hoolifans," so great is their passion for football and the thrill of the violence which goes with it. It is said that the choice of Germany to host the World Cup in 2008 struck joy into the heart of every hoolifan for the potential damage that could be caused. The violence of these so called fans has been documented in books and even a recent film Football Factory based on a book by John King, which uncovers some of the thinking and life behind their acts of aggression. This sort of media attention, especially when focused on the perpetrator, gives the fanatical individual the fame he seeks and a sense of tolerance for his or her actions.

Aggression

There has been much research into the relationship with aggression and fandom. One study looked to see if there was a significant connection between these two traits. Participants were asked to carry out a sports fandom questionnaire which revealed that there was no significant relationship between fandom and aggression.⁶

However, Christian End says, "Research has shown that witnessing aggression often increases the probability that the observer will act in an aggressive manner. Therefore one reason that fans may behave aggressively is that they are witnessing aggression on the field, pitch or court. The more aggressive the sport, the more likely the fans are to aggress. For example, spectator aggressions are probably much more likely to occur at a hockey game than a figure skating competition. Sports organisations should make an attempt to publicise the consequences of fan misbehaviour. Currently, the offence [fan aggression] is highly publicised, while the negative consequences are neglected. The media coverage of the offence may actually reinforce and encourage the antisocial behaviour, and because the negative consequences of the behaviour are neglected, they can't serve their function as a deterrent."

Selling it

The amount of media attention surrounding sports has greatly added to the celebrity nature of sports stars and has made fans feel that they connect more with the players, their team, and the sport itself. However, some sports stars receive more publicity for their private life, marketing potential, and advertising brands than for their sporting ability. Stars such as David Beckham, Andre Agassi, and Kobe Bryant have been party to successful advertising campaigns increasing their star status within their sport.

JOHN WALTON/EMPICS

The Kop choir cheer on the footballing genius that is Igor Biscan

The big bucks

The money which has been poured into sport is phenomenal, from the multimillion pound sponsorship deals which support basketball, baseball, and motor racing to people who have bought shares and taken over football clubs, like Roman Abramovich at Chelsea and Mohammed Al Fayed at Fulham. This money has allowed teams to invest in stadiums, players, and merchandising which in turn attracts new supporters and reaffirms fans' expectations for their team.

Malcolm Clarke is the chair of the Football Supporters Federation and has a different view on the amount of money in football: "I think there's a distaste for the way professional football in Britain has been commercialised and, in particular, the fact that the huge sums of money which have gone into the game haven't reflected themselves in cheaper processes [tickets] for the fans. Most money has gone straight into players' wages. And the fact that despite the huge sums of money in the game there has been the development of a competitive pyramid between the top of the game and the rest of the clubs where a large number of smaller clubs have been threatened with financial extinction. Fans feel that's rather distasteful."

Marketing has become a major part of sports. Team names, logos, and strips help identify cities with their sports teams as well as give their fans a local sense of pride and identity. The great rivalry between teams within a city is reflected by their players and their ethics. Notable rivals include River Plate and Boca Juniors in Buenos Aires, Roma and Lazio in Rome, and Celtic and Rangers in Glasgow. These clubs have distinctly different coloured kits and ethics when it comes to playing football and also differ in the amount of money which has been ploughed into them. It seems that the proliferation of sport is growing every year with more teams having more marketing power and the ability to attract worldwide attention for their actions in and out of the sporting arena.

It is the fan who suffers most though. As the price of tickets for sporting events goes up and as the team strips change every season, sporting events become more exclusive and fans are resigned to watching their team on the television instead of at the stadium. Despite this disappointing trend, the enthusiasm of the fans never dwindles and they become even more dedicated to their team.

1. Wann DL, Friedman K, McHale M, Jaffe A. The Norelco Sports Fanatics Survey: examining behaviours of sports fans. Psychol Rep. 2003 Jun; 92 (3 Pt 1):930-6.
2. Wood D. Living vicariously through sports teams: is it healthy? Somerville: Somerset Medical Center. www.somersetmedicalcenter.com/14 377.cfm (accessed 10 Jun 2004).
3. Boen F, Vanbeselaere N, Feys J. Behavioural consequences of fluctuating group success: an internet study of soccer-team fans. J Soc Psychol 2002;142:769-81.
4. Bizman A, Yinon Y. Engaging in distancing tactics among sport fans: effects on self-esteem and emotional responses. J Soc Psychol 2002;142:381-92.
5. Hansen S, Perry M, Posten M, Schlabach J. Why your favourite team is "your" favourite team? The psychology of sports fans. Oxford, OH: Miami University. www.units.muohio.edu/psybersite/fans/index.shtml (accessed 10 Jun 2004).
6. Wann D, Fahl C, Erdmann J, Littleton J. Relationship between identification with the role of sport fan and trait aggression. Percept Mot Skills 1999;88(suppl):1296-8.